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8 Nov 2025

CLASS 9 SCIENCE Chapter- Gravitation | NOTES

INTRO- GRAVITATION –Gravitation is a natural phenomenon by which every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force that acts along the line joining their centres. -This force of mutual attraction between two masses is called the gravitational force. -Everybody that has mass exerts an attractive force on every other body in the universe. -The magnitude of this force depends on: #The greater the masses, the stronger the attraction; the larger the distance, the weaker the force. -The idea of gravitation was explained by Sir Isaac Newton in 1687. (He discovered that the same force that causes an apple to fall to the ground also holds the Moon in orbit around the Earth and the planets in orbit around the Sun. This inspired him to create the Universal Law of Gravitation, which mathematically defines the force.) *Nature of the Gravitational Force Property Description Type of Force Non-contact (acts without physical contact) Direction Always acts along the line joining the centres of two bodies Nature Always attractive, never repulsive Range Infinite (though becomes very weak with distance) Strength Weak compared to other fundamental forces (e.g., electromagnetic) *Difference Between Gravitation and Gravity Basis Gravitation Gravity Definition The universal force of attraction between any two bodies in the universe. The gravitational force specifically exerted by the Earth on objects near its surface. Scope Universal – acts between any two masses. Local – acts only near the Earth. Example Attraction between the Sun and Earth. Attraction between Earth and an apple. Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation Newton’s Universal law of gravitation states that every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres. Let two objects of masses m1 and m2 be separated by a distance . Then, according to Newton’s law, To remove proportionality, a constant G (the universal gravitational constant) is introduced: Where, G = 6.67×10-11 Nm2/kg2 *Relation between Newton’s third law of motion and Newton’s law of gravitation -Newton’s third law of motion: According to Newton’s third law of motion, “Every object exerts equal and opposite force on other object but in opposite direction.” –Newton’s law of gravitation: According to Newton’s law of gravitation, “Every mass in the universe attracts every other mass.” In case of freely falling stone and earth, stone is attracted towards earth means earth attracts the stone. But according to Newton’s third law of motion, the stone should also attract the earth.It is true that stone also attracts the earth with the same force F = m × a but due to very less mass of the stone, the acceleration (a) in its velocity is 9.8 m/s2 and acceleration (a) of earth towards stone is 1.65×10-24 m/s2 which is negligible and we cannot feel it. *Importance of Universal Law of Gravitation FREE FALL OF AN OBJECT AND ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY Free fall is the motion of a body when it falls towards the Earth under the influence of gravitational force only, with no other force (like air resistance) acting on it. When an object is thrown upward, it reaches certain height, then it starts falling down towards earth. It is because the earth’s gravitational force exerts on it. This fall under the influence of earth is called ‘free fall of an object’. During this free fall direction do not change but velocity continuously changes which is called acceleration due to gravity. It is denoted by ‘g’. Its unit is same as acceleration m/s2. *Derivation for Acceleration Due to Gravity From Newton’s law of gravitation: According to Newton’s second law of motion: For a freely falling body: Equating both forces: Cancelling m from both sides: Formula: *The Value of acceleration due to gravity (g) where, *Difference Between Gravitational constant (G) and Acceleration due to gravity (g) Basis of Difference Universal Gravitational Constant (G) Acceleration Due to Gravity (g) 1. Definition It is a constant that measures the strength of the gravitational force between any two bodies in the universe. It is the acceleration produced in a body when it falls freely under the influence of Earth’s gravity. 2. Formula 3. Nature It is a universal constant, same everywhere in the universe. It varies from place to place (depends on height, depth, and latitude). 4. Value G= 6.67×10-11 5. Depends On It does not depend on mass, distance, or location. It depends on the mass and radius of the Earth. 6. Type of Quantity Scalar quantity (has only magnitude). Vector quantity (has magnitude and direction — toward Earth’s center). 7. Symbol G g 8. Unit N·m²/kg² m/s² 9. Discovery Discovered by Sir Isaac Newton. Measured experimentally on Earth. 10. Variation Remains constant throughout the universe. Decreases with altitude and depth; increases at poles. *Equations of Motion for a Freely Falling Body The same kinematic equations apply, replacing a by g: #For Object Falling Downward #For Object Thrown Upward *Factors Affecting the Value of g MASS AND WEIGHT *MASS *WEIGHT *Difference Between Mass and Weight Basis Mass Weight Definition Amount of matter contained in a body. Force with which Earth attracts a body towards its center. Formula m=w/g W = mg Nature Scalar quantity. Vector quantity (acts downward). Unit (SI) Kilogram (kg). Newton (N). Value Constant everywhere. Varies from place to place (depends on (g)). Measuring Instrument Beam balance. Spring balance. Zero Condition Never zero (matter cannot vanish). Becomes zero where (g = 0) (e.g., space). On Moon Same as on Earth. 1/6 of weight on Earth. THRUST AND PRESSURE When a force acts perpendicularly on a surface, it creates an effect known as thrust.The effect of thrust per unit area on a surface is called pressure. *Thrust *Pressure *Examples of Pressure BUYONCY The upward force exerted by a liquid (or fluid) on an object when it is partially or completely immersed in it is called buoyant force, and the property of a fluid to exert this upward force is called buoyancy. It…

8 Nov 2025

CLASS 10 GEOGRAPHY Ch- Manufacturing Industries | NOTES

INTRO- MANUFACTURING The term “Manufacturing” comes from two Latin words- ‘Manu’ means hand and ‘facture’ means to make. It means producing goods in large quantities from raw materials and adding value to them through processing, machinery, and labour. It is a secondary activity because it converts primary materials (from agriculture, mining, etc.) into finished products. *Relation Between Agriculture and Industry Agriculture and industry are interdependent: #Both sectors support each other’s growth and sustainability. IMPORTANCE OF MANUFACTURING Manufacturing plays a vital role in the economic and social development of a nation. CONTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURING TO NATIONAL ECONOMY INDUSTRIAL LOCATION Industrial location refers to the specific place or area where an industry is set up. Industries tend to locate where all necessary inputs are easily and cheaply available. According to Alfred Weber’s Industrial Location Theory, “An industry is located at a place where the cost of production and transportation is minimum.” *Factors Affecting the Location of Industries Industries do not grow everywhere — they develop where conditions are favourable.The major factors are given below. 1. Availability of Raw Materials 2. Labour (Manpower) 3. Power (Energy Source) 4. Capital (Investment) 5. Market 6. Transport and Communication 7. Government Policies 8. Industrial Climate (Social and Political Stability) *Industrial Clusters or Agglomeration -When several industries are set up close to each other for mutual benefit, it is called industrial agglomeration. -These areas become industrial hubs or regions. -Example: CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIES Industries can be classified or grouped on different bases such as raw materials, capital investment, ownership, and size.This helps in understanding their nature, functioning, and contribution to the economy. AGRO-BASED INDUSTRIES Agro-based industries are industries that use agricultural products as raw materials. They form a strong link between agriculture and industry, and are the largest group of industries in India. These industries process agricultural raw materials into finished or semi-finished goods that can be used by consumers or other industries. 1. Textile Industry 2. Cotton Textile Industry 3. Jute Industry 4. Sugar Industry MINERAL BASED INDUSTRIES 1. Iron and Steel Industry 2. Aluminium Smelting 3. Chemical Industries 4. Fertiliser Industry 5. Cement Industry 6. Automobile Industry 7. Information Technology and Electronics Industry INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION Industrial pollution refers to the contamination of the environment due to harmful by-products released from industries into air, water, and soil. Industries are responsible for four types of pollution: Air, Water, Land, Noise *Measures to Control Industrial Pollution To reduce pollution and promote sustainable development, the following steps are essential:

7 Nov 2025

CLASS 10 SCIENCE Chapter- How do Organism Reproduce | NOTES

INTRODUCTION– Reproduction Reproduction is the biological process by which new individuals (offspring) are produced from their parents. It ensures the continuity of life on Earth. Reproduction is a life process, but not essential for survival of an individual — it is essential for the survival of species. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid), present in the nucleus of every cell, is the hereditary molecule that carries genetic information, gets copied during reproduction, and ensures continuity and variation in organisms. TYPES OF REPRODUCTION 1. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION Asexual reproduction is the type of reproduction in which only one parent is involved and no fusion of gametes takes place.The offspring produced are genetically identical to the parent, i.e., they are exact copies or clones of the parent. *Characteristics of Asexual Reproduction *Advantages of Asexual Reproduction: *Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction: 2. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION Sexual reproduction is the type of reproduction in which two parents (male and female) are involved and fusion of male and female gametes occurs to form a zygote, which develops into a new organism.The offspring produced show variations because they inherit genetic material from both parents. *Characteristics of Sexual Reproduction: *Advantages of Sexual Reproduction: *Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction: METHODS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION 1. FISSION In this process, a unicellular organism divides into two or more new individuals. -There are two types of Fission: Binary Fission and Multiple Fission. i. Binary Fission: The parent cell divides into two equal halves. For example: Amoeba ii. Multiple Fission: The parent cell divides into many daughter cells. It usually occurs in unfavourable conditions. For example: Plasmodium (malaria parasite) 2. BUDDING In this method, a small outgrowth (bud) develops on the parent’s body, which grows and later detaches to form a new individual. For Example: Yeast and Hydra 3. FRAGMENTATION In this process, the body of the parent organism breaks into two or more fragments, and each fragment grows into a new organism. It Occurs only in simple multicellular organisms with simple body organization, not seen in complex animals or plants. For Example: Spirogyra (algae) 4. REGENERATION The ability of an organism to regrow lost body parts, and sometimes a whole new organism can be formed from a body fragment. Regeneration occurs through specialized cells that divide and differentiate into new tissues. For Example: Planaria, and Starfish 5. SPORE FORMATION It is a method of asexual reproduction in which the parent produces tiny spherical spores inside a sporangium (spore case).When the sporangium bursts, the spores spread and grow into new organisms under suitable conditions. For Example: Rhizopus (Bread Mould) 6. VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION (in plants) It is the asexual reproduction in plants where new plants are produced from vegetative parts like root, stem, leaf, or bud, instead of seeds. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION Sexual reproduction is the type of reproduction in which two parents are involved, and fusion of male and female gametes occurs to form a zygote, which later develops into a new individual. –Sexual reproduction is the most common mode of reproduction in higher plants and animals. -It involves two parents — one male and one female. -This process leads to the formation of genetically different offspring due to fusion of gametes and mixing of genetic material. -It helps in variation, evolution, and survival of species. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS Sexual reproduction in plants involves the fusion of male and female gametes, resulting in the formation of a zygote, which grows into a seed and later forms a new plant. This process ensures variation and continuity of species. -Reproductive Organ of the Plant: *Structure of Male and Female Reproductive Parts 1. Male Part – Stamen It consists of: 2. Female Part – Carpel / Pistil It consists of: *Steps involved in sexual reproduction in plants The process occurs in four main stages: STEP 1: POLLINATION Pollination is the process of transferring pollen grains from the anther (male part) to the stigma (female part) of a flower. – Types of Pollination: – Agents of Pollination: Pollination is carried out by wind, water, insects, or birds.(Bees and butterflies are the most common pollinators) STEP 2: FERTILIZATION STEP 3: FRUIT AND SEED FORMATION After fertilization, many changes take place inside the flower: STEP 4: GERMINATION When the seed falls on the soil and gets favourable conditions like air, water, and warmth — it germinates.The embryo inside the seed starts growing into a new plant, completing the life cycle. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEING Reproduction in human beings is a sexual mode of reproduction, involving two parents — a male and a female. It ensures the continuity of human life and the transfer of genetic information from parents to offspring. This process involves the formation of gametes, their fusion (fertilization), and the development of a new individual from the zygote. *PUBERTY -Puberty is the stage when the body becomes capable of reproduction. -It is controlled by hormones and marks physical, physiological, and emotional changes. -Generally occurs between: -Changes at Puberty in Males: – Changes at Puberty in Females: *MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The male reproductive system is responsible for the production, storage, and delivery of sperms (male gametes). It also produces the male sex hormone – Testosterone, which controls the development of male features and reproduction. -Testes (singular: Testis): -Vas Deferens (Sperm Duct): -Urethra: -Penis: *FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The female reproductive system is designed to produce female gametes (ova or eggs), receive sperms from the male, and provide a safe environment for fertilization and development of the baby.It also produces female hormones that control reproductive cycles and secondary sexual characteristics. -Ovaries -Oviducts (Fallopian Tubes) -Uterus (Womb) –Cervix -Vagina *FERTILIZATION OF EGG Fertilisation is the process in which the male gamete (sperm) fuses with the female gamete (egg or ovum) to form a zygote, which is the first cell of a new individual. In humans, fertilisation occurs in the fallopian tube (oviduct) of the female reproductive system. There are two Types of Fertilization: #Humans show internal fertilisation, i.e., fertilisation takes place inside the female body. -Process of Fertilisation: -When the Egg is Fertilised -When the…

5 Nov 2025

CLASS 10 ECONOMICS Chapter- GLOBALIZATION AND INDIAN ECONOMY | NOTES

INTRO- GLOBALIZATION Globalization means the process of integration or interconnection between countries through the movement of goods, services, people, capital (money), and information. In simple terms, it is the process that turns the world into one large market — where countries are connected economically and culturally. “Globalization is the process by which the world’s economies, societies, and cultures are becoming interconnected through increased cross-border trade, investment, and communication.” Globalization has grown to include far more than just trade. This includes: Multinational Corporations (MNCs) are the main driving force behind globalization. MNCs play a central role in connecting national economies and spreading globalization. MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS (MNCs) An MNC is a company that owns or controls production and business operations in more than one country. It is also known as Transnational Corporation. *Aims / Objectives of MNCs *Role of MNCs in Globalization *Benefits from MNCs to Local Companies Benefits Explanation / Example 1. Capital Investment MNCs bring foreign money that helps local companies expand business and production. 2. Transfer of Technology Local firms get access to advanced machines and modern production methods. 3. Better Skills and Standards Workers and managers learn new techniques and improve quality of work. 4. Increased Demand for Local Goods MNCs buy raw materials and parts from local suppliers, creating new business. 5. New Business Opportunities Local small businesses grow as suppliers, transporters, or service providers. 6. Access to Global Markets Collaboration with MNCs helps local firms export goods and enter global trade. 7. Improved Competitiveness Local companies upgrade quality and efficiency to compete globally. IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION Positive Impacts Negative Impacts 1. More foreign investment 1. Unequal benefits 2. Expanded markets 2. Loss to small industries 3. Advanced technology 3. Job insecurity 4. More employment 4. Environmental damage 5. Growth of Indian companies 5. Cultural erosion 6. Better quality & lower prices 6. Rural sector left behind 7. Global exchange of ideas 7. Economic dependence FACTORS THAT ENABLED GLOBALIZATION 1. Rapid Improvement in Technology 2. Liberalization of Foreign Trade and Investment Policy 3. Role of Multinational Companies (MNCs) 4. Growth of Communication Networks 5. Development of Global Financial Systems 6. Trade Agreements and International Organizations 7. Political and Economic Reforms in Developing Countries NEW ECONOMIC POLICY 1991 It was Introduced in 1991 by the government of India under Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao and Finance Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh. The New Economic Policy of 1991 marked a major turning point in India’s economic history. It shifted India from a closed and controlled economy to an open and market-oriented economy. Reason: India faced a serious economic crisis – low foreign exchange, high inflation, and high debt. The main feature of NEP 1991 was LPG policy – Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization.

21 Oct 2025

CLASS 8 SCIENCE Chapter- SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA

Introduction – Natural Phenomena Natural Phenomena are the events or occurrences that happen in nature without human control. Some of them are beautiful and helpful (like rainbows), while others can be dangerous or harmful (like earthquakes, lightning, or cyclones). Electric Charges Every object is made up of tiny particles called atoms. -Atoms contain electrons (–ve), protons (+ve), and neutrons (neutral). -When an object loses or gains electrons, it becomes electrically charged. *Type of Charges *Methods of Charging There are two main methods by which objects can be charged: 1. Charging by Friction (Rubbing) Friction (Rubbing) causes electrons to transfer from one substance to another. One becomes positively charged, while the other becomes negatively charged. –Example: Use a plastic scale or balloon on dry hair: -Real-life examples: 2. Charging by Induction (Without Touching) Charging a neutral object without touching it by simply bringing a charged object close to it. The charged body’s electric field causes the charges inside the neutral object to rearrange themselves. -Example: Bring a negatively charged rod near to a neutral metal ball. 3. Charging by Conduction (Touching) When a charged object touches a neutral object, charges are directly transferred by contact. In conduction, the neutral object always gets the same charge as the charged object. Example: If you touch a negatively charged balloon to a metal can, the can rolls due to gained electrons. *Electroscope An electroscope is a simple device used to detect the presence of electric charge on an object. It helps us find out whether a body is charged or uncharged, and if charged, it can show the nature (type) of the charge. -PARTS: -Working of an Electroscope: -Uses of an Electroscope: 1. Detecting Electric Charge: 2. Testing Conductors and Insulators: Lightning Lightning is a bright flash of light in the sky that occurs during a thunderstorm.It is caused by the discharge of electric charges between clouds or between a cloud and the Earth. *How is Lightning Produced? *Benjamin Franklin’s Experiment *Safety Measures During Lightning –Lightning Conductors A lightning conductor is a metal rod fixed to tall buildings or structures to protect them from lightning strikes. Benjamin Franklin (in 1752) after his famous kite experiment EARTHQUAKE An earthquake is a sudden shaking of the Earth’s surface caused by the release of energy stored in the earth’s crust.This energy is released as seismic waves that travel through the Earth.Earthquakes can range from minor tremors (not felt) to huge destructive quakes. Earthquake is measured by- Richter Scale. It Measures the magnitude (strength) of an earthquake. –Focus (Hypocenter): The point inside Earth where the earthquake starts –Epicenter: The point on Earth’s surface directly above the focus. –Seismic Waves: Waves of energy that travel through the Earth, causing ground shaking. *Causes of Earthquakes 1.Natural Causes -Tectonic Plate Movement -Volcanic Activity -Landslides & Rockfalls 2.Human-Induced Causes –Mining Activities –Reservoir-Induced Earthquakes -Nuclear Explosions * Types of Seismic Waves 1. Primary (P) Waves 2. Secondary (S) Waves 3. Surface Waves * Safety Measures During Earthquake – Indoor Measures: – Outdoor Measures:

8 Oct 2025

CLASS 10 CIVICS Chapter-4 POLITICAL PARTIES | NOTES

MEANING OF POLITICAL PARTIES A political party is an organised group of people with shared political views and ideologies who join together to contest elections and maintain power in government. They agree on certain policies and programmes aimed at increasing societal well-being. Why Do We Need Political Parties? 1. Democracy Cannot Function Without Them If there are no parties, no one will be responsible for how the country is run. And government will become unstable and directionless. 2. They Represent Different Opinions Parties make sure that they will represent society’s diverse views, interest, and opinion. 3. They Make Policies and Run Government Ruling party makes laws and policies for the country. Whereas, Opposition checks and criticises the ruling party. This will ensure the accountability. 4. They Provide Choices to Voters Political parties provide citizens with different options of leaders, programmes and policies. 5. They Form a Link Between Government and People We need Political Parties as they act like a bridge between government and citizens by raising demands and problems of the people. COMPONENTS OF POLITICAL PARTIES A political party is not just its leaders but a combination of leaders + active members + followers. All three components are necessary for the functioning and success of a party. Functions of Political Parties 1. Contest ElectionsParties nominate and campaign for candidates to win elections and implement programs. 2. Create policies and programmesEach party develops policies and programs to address public issues, providing voters with clear options for the country’s future direction. 3. Making LawsParties in power shape policies that reflects their ideology and promises. 4. Establish and Run GovernmentThe majority party (or coalition) establishes the government, manages ministries, and implements policies, while the opposition checks its actions. 5. Shape Public OpinionParties employ rallies, campaigns, debates, and media to influence and guide people on important national and social issues. 6. Give people access to the governmentParties serve as bridges between the government and citizens, fighting for their needs and facilitating access to government programs and services. Types of Party System A party system refers to how political parties are organised and run in a country, including how many parties compete, share power, and influence policies. Political scientists divide party systems into three categories based on the number of parties and the nature of competition: 1. One-Party System -Definition: A system where only one political party exists or dominates all levels of government. -Features: -Examples: China (Communist Party), North Korea (Workers’ Party). -Pros: Ensures stability -Cons: limits freedom of choice and disagreement. 2. Two-Party System -Definition: A system where two major parties dominate national politics. -Features: -Examples: USA (Democrats & Republicans), UK (Conservatives & Labour). -Pros: Gives political stability and clear policies, limits fragmentation of votes. -Cons: Minorities and smaller groups may be underrepresented. 3. Multi-Party System -Definition: A system where multiple political parties compete for power at national and state levels. -Features: -Examples: India, Italy, Israel. -Pros: -Cons: Can lead to unstable governments if coalitions are weak or short-lived. Types of Political Parties Political parties can be classified based on their scope of influence and operation in a country. In India and most democracies, they are mainly of two kinds: *National Party -A national party is a political party that runs in several states and has a large national following. If these parties secure a majority of seats in the Lok Sabha, they will be able to form the central government. These political parties are referred to as “recognised political parties” because the Election Commission of India (ECI) has recognised them. –Criteria for a National Party A political party is recognised as a National Party in India if it has a widespread presence across the country. According to the Election Commission of India, a party can be recognised as a national party if it fulfil any one of the following: OR OR –National Parties in India (2024–25) 1. Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) 2. Indian National Congress (INC) 3. Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) 4. Communist Party of India (Marxist) – CPI(M) 5. Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) 6. National People’s Party (NPP) *State/Regional Party A state party, sometimes known as a regional party, is a type of political party that is only accepted in one or a small number of Indian states. These parties primarily serve the interests of their respective states or regions, but through alliances, they can also have a significant impact on national politics. Examples of State Parties in India POLITICAL ALLIANCES When two or more political parties join together to run for election and form a government, this is known as a political alliance. If they win, they agree to share power and work together on a single program. -Examples of Alliances in India -Need for Alliances ROLE OF OPPOSITION The party or parties that do not control the government but are well-represented in the legislature are known as the opposition parties. The Leader of the Opposition is the major party that is not in power; it is officially recognised if it holds at least 10% of the seats in the Lok Sabha. Functions / Importance of Opposition SIGNIFICANCE OF POLITICAL PARTIES IN DEMOCRACY Political parties are called the “backbone of democracy” because without them democracy cannot function. So, their Significance/Importance in Democracy are as follow: POLITICAL PARTY REFORM Political parties are very important in a democracy because they run governments, represent people, and give choices in elections. But sometimes, parties face problems like corruption, family rule, and misuse of money. That is why political party reforms are needed. *Why Do We Need Political Party Reforms? Political parties need reforms because: *How Can Political Parties Be Reformed? 1. Legal Reforms (By Law) 2. Institutional Reforms (By Election Commission & Constitution) 3. Voluntary / Social Reforms (By People & Parties) *Some suggestions to reform political parties CHALLENGES TO POLITICAL PARIES 1. Dynastic Succession: 2. Money and Muscle Power: 3. Lack of Internal Democracy: 4. Influence of Rich and Powerful Groups: 5. Corruption and Declining Credibility: 6. Fragmentation of Votes: 7. Frequent Splits in Parties: 8.…

8 Oct 2025

CLASS 9 ECONOMICS Chapter-3 POVERTY AS A CHALLENGE

Introduction – Poverty as a Challenge Class 9 One of India’s most significant social and economic problems is poverty. It describes a state where people are lacking the basic necessities of life, such as food, clothing, housing, medical treatment, and education. Every day, a poor person fights for survival and faces insecurity, hunger, and a lack of dignity. Poverty includes not only a lack of money, but also the absence of opportunities, social position, and a fair level of living. Meaning of Poverty Poverty is a circumstance in which a person’s income is insufficient to meet their basic needs.It has a wide-ranging impact on life: Thus, poverty is multidimensional, not just about income, but also about quality of life. Two Typical Cases of Poverty 1. RURAL CASE- Ram Saran’s Family (Village near Meerut, Uttar Pradesh) -Living Conditions: -Conclusion (Rural Poverty Features) 2. URBAN CASE – Saviya Begum’s Family (Urban Area) -Living Conditions: -Conclusion (Urban Poverty Feature) #NOTE: POVERTY AS SEEN BY SOCIAL SCIENTISTS According to social scientists, poverty is about more than just income or money. It is a multidimensional issue that include a lack of basic necessities, education, healthcare, and social justice. Poverty means a situation where people are deprived of a decent standard of living and opportunities for development. Social scientists identify different types of deprivations faced by poor people. These are as follow: (i) Social Deprivation: (ii) Economic Deprivation: (iii) Political Deprivation: (iv) Health and Educational Deprivation: (v) Vulnerability and Insecurity: POVERTY LINE The poverty line is the minimum amount of income or consumption necessary for a person to achieve their basic necessities. People below this level are considered poor. The Planning Commission and the National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) conducted the survey. The poverty line is estimated periodically (normally every five years). In India, the poverty line is estimated based on: POVERTY ESTIMATES Poverty estimates show how many people are poor in the country. The Planning Commission of India calculates them based on National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) surveys. In India, the consumption approach is mostly used to determine if people can afford basic food and necessities. Historical estimations suggest a falling trend in poverty: Poverty has gradually declined, with rural areas having more poor people than urban areas. –Limitations of Poverty Estimates INTER STATE POVERTY Inter-state disparities refer to differences in poverty levels and living standards between India’s states. These disparities exist because not all states have equal resources, industries, and opportunities. -Lower Poverty States: States like Maharashtra, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu have lower poverty rates due to better industrial growth, improved agriculture, higher literacy rates, and better job opportunities. -Higher Poverty States: States such as Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, and Jharkhand continue to have higher poverty rates due to slow industrial growth, poor infrastructure, low literacy, and a lack of job opportunity. -The main causes of inter-state disparities include: #NOTE: Rural poverty is higher than urban poverty in all states. Disparities affect standard of living, health, and education of people. GLOBAL POVERTY SCENARIO The global poverty scenario describes the extent and distribution of poverty around the world. According to the World Bank, a person earning less than $1.90 per day (in terms of purchasing power) is classified as poor under international standards. Global poverty has decreased in recent decades, particularly since the 1980s, although it remains a serious problem in many developing and undeveloped countries. The largest concentration of poor people lives in South Asia (India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka) and Sub-Saharan Africa. The global poverty scenario shows that, while poverty has decreased worldwide, it is still concentrated in South Asia and Africa. Countries such as China and India have made great progress. POVERTY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS (SDG) -In 2015, the United Nations approved the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which aim to promote global peace, prosperity, and equality by 2030. Goal 1 – “No Poverty” aims to end all types of poverty and ensure that no one lives on less than $1.90 per day (international poverty line). -Poverty reduction is an important component of sustainable development since it improves education, health, equality, and economic progress. -India is committed to achieving this goal through various poverty alleviation programmes, such as: CAUSES OF POVERTY ANTI-POVERTY MEASURES To reduce poverty in India, the government has adopted two main approaches: *Promotion of Economic Growth *Targeted Anti-Poverty Programmes The government has launched several schemes to directly help the poor: 1. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), 2005 2. National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme (NREGP) and National Food for Work Programme (NFFWP) 3. Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY) 4. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) 5. National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM) 6. Prime Minister Jan-Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) THE CHALLENGES AHEAD Even after years of economic growth and government schemes, poverty remains a challenge in India. These Challenges are as follow: 1. Rural Poverty 2. Unemployment and underemployment 3. Population Pressure 4. Social Inequality 5. Lack of Education and Skills 6. Regional Disparities 7. Implementation Issues

4 Oct 2025

CLASS 9 SCIENCE (Chemistry) Chapter-4 STRUCTURE OF ATOMS

CHARGED PARTICLES IN MATTER The presence of charged particles in matter is suggested by the phenomena of static electricity and electricity conduction through certain substances. Therefore, Atoms can be divided further into sub-atomic particles. *SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES An atom is the smallest unit of an element that still retains its chemical properties. It consists of three fundamental sub-atomic particles: Electrons (e−): These are the negatively charged particles having very little mass. They orbit the nucleus. Protons (p+): These are the positively charged particles. They are located in the nucleus and have a mass of about one atomic mass unit. Neutrons (n): These are the particles that are neutral (have no charge). They are also found in the nucleus and have a mass roughly equivalent to that of a proton. EARLY MODELS OF ATOM *DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY Dalton’s theory states that matter is made up of small indestructible atoms that combine in set ratios and rearrange in reactions without being created or destroyed. This theory suggested that Atom is indivisible – which could not be broken down into smaller particles. # But the discovery of Sub-Atomic Particles inside the atom disproved this principle of Dalton’s atomic theory. *DISCOVERY OF ELECTRONS (1897) -Given by: J.J. Thomson in 1897. -J.J. Thomson discovered the electron in 1897 through the cathode ray experiment, proving atoms are not indivisible. -Experiment Setup -Key Observations -Conclusion -Thomson’s Contribution -Characteristics of an Electron *DISCOVERY OF PROTON -Given by: E. Goldstein in 1886 –E. Goldstein discovered protons in 1886 through canal rays, identifying them as positively charged particles inside atoms. -Experiment Setup -Key Observations -Conclusion -Importance -characteristics of proton *DISCOVERY OF NEUTRON – Given by: James Chadwick -In 1932, James Chadwick discovered the neutron, a neutral particle in the nucleus with mass equal to a proton. -Experiment Key Observations -Conclusion -Importance -Characteristics of Neutron ATOMIC MODEL There are three Atomic Models on Arrangement of Sub-Atomic Particles. 1) Thomson’s Model of the Atom (1898) -After discovering the electron, J.J. Thomson proposed a model to explain the structure of the atom. -Thomson imagined the atom as a sphere of positive charge with electrons studded inside it, called the Plum Pudding Model. -Main Features -Limitations -Importance 2) Rutherford’s Model (Nuclear Model) -Rutherford performed the Gold Foil Experiment (α-particle scattering experiment) with Geiger and Marsden. -Aim: To test Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model. -Experiment Setup -Observations -Main Features of Rutherford’s Model -Limitations -Importance 3) Bohr’s Model -Niels Bohr improved Rutherford’s model. -Solved the stability problem and explained hydrogen spectrum. -Postulates of Bohr’s Model -Achievements –Limitations Atomic Number and Mass Number An atom is made up of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. The atomic number and mass number are two important terms used to describe the composition of an atom. *Atomic Number (Z) The atomic number, symbolized by Z, is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Formula: Atomic Number(Z)=Number of Protons For a neutral atom: Number of Electrons=Number of Protons *Mass Number (A) The mass number, symbolized by A, is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. Since the mass of electrons is negligible, the mass number essentially represents the total mass of the atom’s nucleus. Formula: Mass Number(A)=Number of Protons + Number of Neutrons You can rearrange this formula to find the number of neutrons: Number of Neutrons = Mass Number(A) – Atomic Number(Z) *Isotope Notation Elements are often represented with their atomic and mass numbers. The notation is as follows: Where: Example: Carbon (C) A common isotope of carbon has an atomic number of 6 and a mass number of 12. This can be written as: Electron Distribution in Orbits After the discovery of protons, electrons, and neutrons, the next task was to understand how electrons are arranged within an atom. -Niels Bohr and Bury developed laws for the distribution of electrons in different shells (orbits/energy levels) surrounding the nucleus. *Rules for Electron Distribution 1. Naming of Shells 2. Maximum Number of Electrons in a Shell 3. Octet Rule (Stability Rule) 4. Filling of Electrons in Successive Shells *Importance of Electron Distribution VALENCY Valency is the combining capacity of an atom. It is the number of electrons an atom must gain, lose, or share to achieve a stable electronic configuration, typically having a full outermost shell (an octet of 8 electrons, or a duplet of 2 for elements like Helium). This stable state resembles the electronic configuration of a noble gas. -Atoms are stable when they have 8 electrons in their outermost shell (Octet Rule). -To become stable, atoms: *How to Determine Valency The valency of an element is determined by the number of electrons in its outermost shell, known as valence electrons. *Types of Valency Based on how atoms achieve stability, we can distinguish between two types of valency: *Noble Gases: Zero Valency Noble gases (Group 18 elements) like Helium, Neon, and Argon have a completely filled outermost shell (a stable octet or duplet). Because they are already stable, they do not need to gain, lose, or share electrons. #Valency of noble gases is zero. They are generally unreactive. *Importance of Valency ISOTOPES AND ISOBARS *Isotopes -Definition – Characteristics – Example: Chlorine has two isotopes, Chlorine-35 and Chlorine-37. – Uses of Isotopes *Isobars – Definition – Characteristics

27 Sep 2025

CLASS 10 Science | Chapter- HUMAN EYE and Colourful World | NOTES

INTRODUCTION: HUMAN EYE -The human eye is a sensory organ that allows us to see objects around us. -It operates like a camera, forming an image of an item on the retina. -The retina is the eye’s light-sensitive screen, where images are created. -The image created is real, inverted, and smaller in size; but our brain interprets it as upright. -The eye lens is convex in shape, and the focus length may be changed to observe both nearby and distant things. -The average adult human eye has a focus length of around 2 cm and a diameter of approximately 2.3 cm. -The human eye can see objects clearly from around 25 cm (near point) to infinity (far point). Check out related Question-Answers: Visit QnA.Gyanora.in or PARTS OF HUMAN EYE Cornea Iris Pupil Eye Lens Retina Ciliary Muscles Optic Nerve Aqueous Humour Vitreous Humour Check out related Question-Answers: Visit QnA.Gyanora.in or HUMAN EYE WORK AS A CAMERA The human eye works like a camera in many ways, like: 1.The Lens of the Eye: Just as a camera lens focusses light, your cornea and eye lens bend light rays to create a sharp image inside. 2. The Aperture: The aperture in a camera determines how much light enters. The pupil in your eye performs this function. The pupil contracts in bright sunshine and expands in low light. 3. The shutter: Cameras employ shutters to open and close. Your eyelids act as natural shutters, shielding your eyes and providing slumber. 4. The Film or Screen: Camera capture images on a film or sensor. Your eye contains a retina, a particular light-sensitive screen that collects images. 5. The Focus System: In cameras, we can adjust the focus manually or automatically. The ciliary muscles in your eyes do this instantly. They change the lens to allow you to view both your book and the stars. 6. The Brain as a Memory Card: Just like a camera stores photographs on a memory card, your optic nerve transports image information to the brain, where they are stored and processed. Check out related Question-Answers: Visit QnA.Gyanora.in or NEAR POINT OR LEAST DISTANCE OF DISTINCT VISION -The near point of the human eye is the shortest distance at which an item can be clearly perceived without effort. -It is also known as the minimum distance of clear eyesight. -The near point for a normal healthy adult is about 25 cm away. -Objects closer than 25 cm appear blurred because the eye lens is unable to correctly focus light on the retina. -At the nearest point: -Symbolically, D = 25 cm. *Accommodation of the Eye: Check out related Question-Answers: Visit QnA.Gyanora.in or DEFECT OF VISION AND CORRECTION 1.MYOPIA (Near Sightedness) –Myopia, also referred to as near sightedness, is a vision condition in which a person is able to see nearby object but distant objects appear blurry. –The eye lens focusses light in front of the retina rather than onto it. –causes: It happens because of: -Correction: 2.HYPERMETROPIA (Far Sightedness) -Hypermetropia, also referred to as far sightedness, is an eye disorder that causes a person to view far objects clearly but near objects to appear blurry. -The eye lens directs light behind the retina rather than onto it. -Causes: It happens because of: –Correction: 3.PRESBYOPIA –Presbyopia is an age-related vision condition in which the eye loses the capacity to focus on nearby objects. -Cause: -Symptoms: -Correction: Check out related Question-Answers: Visit QnA.Gyanora.in or ADVANTAGES OF THE EYE IN FRONT OF THE FACE 1. Binocular vision: 2. Improved Depth Perception: 3. Wide Range of Vision: 4. Protection and coordination: REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM *What is a Prism? *Refraction through a Prism *Angle of Deviation (δ) DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT -The process by which white light breaks into its individual colours as it travels through a prism or any other refracting material is known as dispersion. -The spectrum’s seven colours are VIBGYOR à violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. -Why Does Dispersion Happen? *Recombination of the Spectrum of White Light –After dispersion, the seven colours of white light can be combined again to form white light. This process is called recombination of the spectrum. -Isaac Newton first showed recombination using two prisms: -Observations: TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION Total Internal Reflection is the phenomenon in which a light ray, traveling from a denser medium to a rarer medium, is completely reflected back into the denser medium at the boundary, instead of refracting out. -Conditions for TIR: TIR occurs only when both requirements are met. -TIR is used in: *HOW IS RAINBOW FORMED Rainbow is formed due to the combined effect of:Refraction + Dispersion + Internal Reflection 1. The presence of raindrops 2. Refraction and Dispersion 3. Internal Reflection 4. Emergence (Refraction Again) 5. Rainbow Formation ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION -Atmospheric refraction refers to the bending of light as it passes through the Earth’s atmosphere, which is made up of layers of varied density. -Air’s refractive index varies with temperature and pressure, leading to this phenomenon. -The atmosphere is composed of multiple layers of air with different densities. -Light from a distant object bends gradually as it travels through these layers. 1. Twinkling of Stars -Stars are far away and appear as point sources of light. -Starlight passes through the Earth’s atmosphere, which has uneven air layers of various densities. -Because of atmospheric refraction, the path of starlight is always shifting. -The star’s apparent position and brightness fluctuate, giving the appearance of twinkling. # Why Planets Don’t Twinkle 2. Stars’ Apparent Position -The real position of a star is different from where we see it in the sky. -This happens because of atmospheric refraction -Starlight passes through the Earth’s atmosphere, which has layers of air with different densities. -As light bends continuously towards the normal while moving from rarer to denser layers, the star appears slightly higher than its actual position. 3. Advance Sunrise and Delayed Sunset -We see the Sun earlier than its actual rise and longer after its actual set. -This is due…

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