Marginalisation
29 Nov 2025

CLASS 8 CIVICS Chapter-5 Understanding Marginalisation | NOTES

INTRO – MARGINALISATION Marginalisation is the process by which certain individuals or groups are denied major participation in social, economic, political, and cultural life. These groups are frequently denied access to authority and decision-making, which contributes to structural disadvantage and inequality. *Marginalisation V/s Marginalised – Marginalisation:  Marginalisation is the process. It means pushing a group of people to the edge of society, where they do not get equal rights, opportunities, or respect.So, marginalisation is the action or the situation that creates inequality. – Marginalised: It is an individual or a group. Marginalised refers to the people who are affected by marginalisation.These are the communities who are left out, ignored, or treated unfairly in society.So, marginalised are the individuals or groups who experience the effects of marginalisation. CAUSES OF MARGINALISATION 1. Historical Inequality 2. Social Discrimination 3. Lack of Education 4. Economic Problems 5. Cultural Differences 6. Political Exclusion 7. Stereotypes 8. Loss of Land and Resources MARGINALISED SECTIONS OF OUR SOCIETY THE ADIVASIS “Adivasi” means original inhabitants. Adivasis are one of the most important and diverse communities of India. They are known as the original or indigenous people of our country. India has more than 500 Adivasi groups. They comprise of around 8% of India’s population. The legal term used by the Indian government for Adivasis is Scheduled Tribes. Adivasis have a deep connection with forests, wildlife, rivers, and land. Their entire lifestyle revolves around nature, which they respect and protect. They have – Distinct languages, Colorful festivals, Traditional music and dance, Unique food habits, Strong community bonds. *Why Are Adivasis Marginalised? *Stereotyping the Adivasis – A stereotype is a generalized belief about a particular category of people. It ignores the real diversity and individuality of the community. – Many people wrongly believe that Adivasis are – Backward, Uneducated, Uncivilised, always living in forests, and Unwilling to change or modernise. – Why Are These Stereotypes Wrong? *Displacement of Adivasis Displacement means forcing people to leave their home or land and move somewhere else, usually because of reasons like construction projects, natural disasters, mining, or conflicts. – Causes of Displacement of Adivasis – Effects of Displacement on Adivasis MINORITIES AND MARGINALISATION A minority is a group that is smaller in population, culture, or language compared to others. In India, religious minorities include – Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis. – Why Do Minorities Face Marginalisation? MUSLIMS AND MARGINALISATION According to 2001 census, Muslims are 13.4 per cent of India’s population and are considered to be a marginalised community in India. *Reasons that show Muslims Considered a Marginalised Community 1. Lower Literacy Levels 2. Limited Access to Good Jobs

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adolescence
24 Nov 2025

CLASS 8 SCIENCE Chapter- ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND ADOLESCENCE | NOTES

INTRO – ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND ADOLESCENCE Adolescence is one of the most exciting phases of life. It usually begins around 10–12 years and continues till 18–19 years. During these years, you may notice many things happening at the same time. The endocrine system is a network of glands that produce hormones — special chemicals that act like tiny messengers. These hormones travel in your blood and tell different parts of your body when to grow, how to develop, and how to feel. Endocrine system = Glands + Hormones The Endocrine System is the body’s internal communication network, and adolescence is the time when this network becomes super active. HORMONES AND ENDOCRINE GLAND *What Are Glands Glands are special organs in our body that make and release various chemical substances.These chemicals help the body grow, stay healthy, digest food, control temperature, and even fight stress. There are two main types of glands: 1. Exocrine Glands – The Ones with Ducts 2. Endocrine Glands – The Ductless Ones *what are Hormones Hormones are chemical messengers made by endocrine glands. They travel through blood and control almost every activity in the body. *Major Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones 1) Pituitary Gland – “The Master Gland” 2) Thyroid Gland – Body’s Energy Manager 3) Adrenal Glands – “Emergency Responders” 4) Pancreas – Blood Sugar Controller 5) Reproductive Glands – Puberty Controllers     –Testes (in boys)      –Ovaries (in girls) PUBERTY Puberty marks the biological start of adolescence. It is the phase when the body becomes capable of reproduction and starts developing new characteristics. Girls usually begin puberty between 10–14 years Boys usually begin puberty between 11–15 years Hormones play the main role in triggering all changes of puberty. *The various changes which occur in boys during puberty: *The various changes which occur in girls during puberty: *Changes in Reproductive Organs As puberty begins, the reproductive organs finally mature and become fully functional. This happens due to hormonal changes controlled by the pituitary gland. – In Boys –In Girls *Menstrual Cycle (28-Day Cycle) If the egg is not fertilized, both the egg and the thick uterine lining are shed from the body. This flow of blood and tissue is called menstruation. The human menstrual cycle has four phases: Phase 1: Menstruation (Day 1–4) Phase 2: Follicular Phase (Day 5–12) Phase 3: Ovulation (Day 13–14) Phase 4: Luteal Phase (Day 15–28) #Menarche: First menstrual flow (usually at the start of adolescence). #Menopause: Menstrual cycle stops permanently (around age 45–50). *Determination of the Sex of the Baby Humans have 23 pairs (46 total) chromosomes. Out of these, 22 pairs are normal body chromosomes. The 23rd pair is called the sex chromosomes because they decide whether the baby will be a boy or girl. Girls have XX chromosomes, while boys have XY chromosomes. In humans, the mother’s egg always carries only one type of sex chromosome – X. However, the father’s sperms are of two types: some carry X, and some carry Y. This difference plays the main role in deciding the baby’s sex. X (egg) + X (sperm) = XX → Girl baby X (egg) + Y (sperm) = XY → Boy baby Therefore, the sex of the baby depends completely on which sperm reaches the egg first — the X-sperm or the Y-sperm. This means the father determines the sex of the baby, not the mother. *Emotional Changes at Puberty During adolescence, hormones affect not only the body but also the mind. Common emotional changes: NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS DURING ADOLESCENCE Good food is not just fuel—it’s the building block of a strong and confident future. During adolescence, the body needs: *Essential Nutrients Needed by Adolescents PERSONAL HYGIENE DURING ADOLESCENCE During Adolescence, the body becomes more prone to sweat, oiliness, skin problems, and infections. That’s why maintaining personal hygiene is extremely important. Cleanliness during adolescence keeps the body healthy, boosts confidence, and prevents diseases. *Essential Personal Hygiene Habits During Adolescence PHYSICAL FITNESS DURING ADOLESCENCE Physical fitness means the ability of the body to perform daily activities without getting tired easily and with strength, stamina, and flexibility. It keeps both the body and mind strong during the rapid growth of adolescence. A physically fit adolescent can handle daily tasks effortlessly, think clearly, and stay confident. *How Adolescents Can Stay Physically Fit DRUG ABUSE AND AIDS *Drug Abuse Drug abuse means misusing harmful substances such as tobacco, alcohol, or other addictive drugs. These substances affect the brain, damage the body, and can create lifelong health problems. The harmful Effects of Drug Abuse are as follow: *AIDS AIDS stands for Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome. It is caused by a virus called HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus). HIV attacks the body’s immune system, making it difficult to fight infections. A person with AIDS becomes weak and easily gets sick because the body’s defence system is damaged. HIV spreads through specific ways – Unprotected sexual contact, Sharing infected needles or syringes, Transfusion of infected blood. It is NOT spread through – Touching, hugging, or shaking hands, Sharing food or water, Mosquito bites, Sitting in the same classroom.

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natural phenomena
21 Oct 2025

CLASS 8 SCIENCE Chapter- SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA

Introduction – Natural Phenomena Natural Phenomena are the events or occurrences that happen in nature without human control. Some of them are beautiful and helpful (like rainbows), while others can be dangerous or harmful (like earthquakes, lightning, or cyclones). Electric Charges Every object is made up of tiny particles called atoms. -Atoms contain electrons (–ve), protons (+ve), and neutrons (neutral). -When an object loses or gains electrons, it becomes electrically charged. *Type of Charges *Methods of Charging There are two main methods by which objects can be charged: 1. Charging by Friction (Rubbing) Friction (Rubbing) causes electrons to transfer from one substance to another. One becomes positively charged, while the other becomes negatively charged. –Example: Use a plastic scale or balloon on dry hair:  -Real-life examples: 2. Charging by Induction (Without Touching) Charging a neutral object without touching it by simply bringing a charged object close to it. The charged body’s electric field causes the charges inside the neutral object to rearrange themselves. -Example: Bring a negatively charged rod near to a neutral metal ball. 3. Charging by Conduction (Touching) When a charged object touches a neutral object, charges are directly transferred by contact. In conduction, the neutral object always gets the same charge as the charged object. Example: If you touch a negatively charged balloon to a metal can, the can rolls due to gained electrons. *Electroscope An electroscope is a simple device used to detect the presence of electric charge on an object. It helps us find out whether a body is charged or uncharged, and if charged, it can show the nature (type) of the charge. -PARTS: -Working of an Electroscope: -Uses of an Electroscope: 1. Detecting Electric Charge: 2. Testing Conductors and Insulators: Lightning Lightning is a bright flash of light in the sky that occurs during a thunderstorm.It is caused by the discharge of electric charges between clouds or between a cloud and the Earth. *How is Lightning Produced? *Benjamin Franklin’s Experiment *Safety Measures During Lightning –Lightning Conductors A lightning conductor is a metal rod fixed to tall buildings or structures to protect them from lightning strikes. Benjamin Franklin (in 1752) after his famous kite experiment EARTHQUAKE An earthquake is a sudden shaking of the Earth’s surface caused by the release of energy stored in the earth’s crust.This energy is released as seismic waves that travel through the Earth.Earthquakes can range from minor tremors (not felt) to huge destructive quakes. Earthquake is measured by- Richter Scale. It Measures the magnitude (strength) of an earthquake. –Focus (Hypocenter): The point inside Earth where the earthquake starts –Epicenter: The point on Earth’s surface directly above the focus. –Seismic Waves: Waves of energy that travel through the Earth, causing ground shaking. *Causes of Earthquakes 1.Natural Causes -Tectonic Plate Movement -Volcanic Activity -Landslides & Rockfalls 2.Human-Induced Causes –Mining Activities –Reservoir-Induced Earthquakes -Nuclear Explosions * Types of Seismic Waves 1. Primary (P) Waves 2. Secondary (S) Waves 3. Surface Waves * Safety Measures During Earthquake – Indoor Measures: – Outdoor Measures:

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