Introduction – Poverty as a Challenge Class 9 One of India’s most significant social and economic problems is poverty. It describes a state where people are lacking the basic necessities of life, such as food, clothing, housing, medical treatment, and education. Every day, a poor person fights for survival and faces insecurity, hunger, and a lack of dignity. Poverty includes not only a lack of money, but also the absence of opportunities, social position, and a fair level of living. Meaning of Poverty Poverty is a circumstance in which a person’s income is insufficient to meet their basic needs.It has a wide-ranging impact on life: Thus, poverty is multidimensional, not just about income, but also about quality of life. Two Typical Cases of Poverty 1. RURAL CASE- Ram Saran’s Family (Village near Meerut, Uttar Pradesh) -Living Conditions: -Conclusion (Rural Poverty Features) 2. URBAN CASE – Saviya Begum’s Family (Urban Area) -Living Conditions: -Conclusion (Urban Poverty Feature) #NOTE: POVERTY AS SEEN BY SOCIAL SCIENTISTS According to social scientists, poverty is about more than just income or money. It is a multidimensional issue that include a lack of basic necessities, education, healthcare, and social justice. Poverty means a situation where people are deprived of a decent standard of living and opportunities for development. Social scientists identify different types of deprivations faced by poor people. These are as follow: (i) Social Deprivation: (ii) Economic Deprivation: (iii) Political Deprivation: (iv) Health and Educational Deprivation: (v) Vulnerability and Insecurity: POVERTY LINE The poverty line is the minimum amount of income or consumption necessary for a person to achieve their basic necessities. People below this level are considered poor. The Planning Commission and the National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) conducted the survey. The poverty line is estimated periodically (normally every five years). In India, the poverty line is estimated based on: POVERTY ESTIMATES Poverty estimates show how many people are poor in the country. The Planning Commission of India calculates them based on National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) surveys. In India, the consumption approach is mostly used to determine if people can afford basic food and necessities. Historical estimations suggest a falling trend in poverty: Poverty has gradually declined, with rural areas having more poor people than urban areas. –Limitations of Poverty Estimates INTER STATE POVERTY Inter-state disparities refer to differences in poverty levels and living standards between India’s states. These disparities exist because not all states have equal resources, industries, and opportunities. -Lower Poverty States: States like Maharashtra, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu have lower poverty rates due to better industrial growth, improved agriculture, higher literacy rates, and better job opportunities. -Higher Poverty States: States such as Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, and Jharkhand continue to have higher poverty rates due to slow industrial growth, poor infrastructure, low literacy, and a lack of job opportunity. -The main causes of inter-state disparities include: #NOTE: Rural poverty is higher than urban poverty in all states. Disparities affect standard of living, health, and education of people. GLOBAL POVERTY SCENARIO The global poverty scenario describes the extent and distribution of poverty around the world. According to the World Bank, a person earning less than $1.90 per day (in terms of purchasing power) is classified as poor under international standards. Global poverty has decreased in recent decades, particularly since the 1980s, although it remains a serious problem in many developing and undeveloped countries. The largest concentration of poor people lives in South Asia (India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka) and Sub-Saharan Africa. The global poverty scenario shows that, while poverty has decreased worldwide, it is still concentrated in South Asia and Africa. Countries such as China and India have made great progress. POVERTY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS (SDG) -In 2015, the United Nations approved the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which aim to promote global peace, prosperity, and equality by 2030. Goal 1 – “No Poverty” aims to end all types of poverty and ensure that no one lives on less than $1.90 per day (international poverty line). -Poverty reduction is an important component of sustainable development since it improves education, health, equality, and economic progress. -India is committed to achieving this goal through various poverty alleviation programmes, such as: CAUSES OF POVERTY ANTI-POVERTY MEASURES To reduce poverty in India, the government has adopted two main approaches: *Promotion of Economic Growth *Targeted Anti-Poverty Programmes The government has launched several schemes to directly help the poor: 1. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), 2005 2. National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme (NREGP) and National Food for Work Programme (NFFWP) 3. Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY) 4. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) 5. National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM) 6. Prime Minister Jan-Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) THE CHALLENGES AHEAD Even after years of economic growth and government schemes, poverty remains a challenge in India. These Challenges are as follow: 1. Rural Poverty 2. Unemployment and underemployment 3. Population Pressure 4. Social Inequality 5. Lack of Education and Skills 6. Regional Disparities 7. Implementation Issues
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CHARGED PARTICLES IN MATTER The presence of charged particles in matter is suggested by the phenomena of static electricity and electricity conduction through certain substances. Therefore, Atoms can be divided further into sub-atomic particles. *SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES An atom is the smallest unit of an element that still retains its chemical properties. It consists of three fundamental sub-atomic particles: Electrons (e−): These are the negatively charged particles having very little mass. They orbit the nucleus. Protons (p+): These are the positively charged particles. They are located in the nucleus and have a mass of about one atomic mass unit. Neutrons (n): These are the particles that are neutral (have no charge). They are also found in the nucleus and have a mass roughly equivalent to that of a proton. EARLY MODELS OF ATOM *DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY Dalton’s theory states that matter is made up of small indestructible atoms that combine in set ratios and rearrange in reactions without being created or destroyed. This theory suggested that Atom is indivisible – which could not be broken down into smaller particles. # But the discovery of Sub-Atomic Particles inside the atom disproved this principle of Dalton’s atomic theory. *DISCOVERY OF ELECTRONS (1897) -Given by: J.J. Thomson in 1897. -J.J. Thomson discovered the electron in 1897 through the cathode ray experiment, proving atoms are not indivisible. -Experiment Setup -Key Observations -Conclusion -Thomson’s Contribution -Characteristics of an Electron *DISCOVERY OF PROTON -Given by: E. Goldstein in 1886 –E. Goldstein discovered protons in 1886 through canal rays, identifying them as positively charged particles inside atoms. -Experiment Setup -Key Observations -Conclusion -Importance -characteristics of proton *DISCOVERY OF NEUTRON – Given by: James Chadwick -In 1932, James Chadwick discovered the neutron, a neutral particle in the nucleus with mass equal to a proton. -Experiment Key Observations -Conclusion -Importance -Characteristics of Neutron ATOMIC MODEL There are three Atomic Models on Arrangement of Sub-Atomic Particles. 1) Thomson’s Model of the Atom (1898) -After discovering the electron, J.J. Thomson proposed a model to explain the structure of the atom. -Thomson imagined the atom as a sphere of positive charge with electrons studded inside it, called the Plum Pudding Model. -Main Features -Limitations -Importance 2) Rutherford’s Model (Nuclear Model) -Rutherford performed the Gold Foil Experiment (α-particle scattering experiment) with Geiger and Marsden. -Aim: To test Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model. -Experiment Setup -Observations -Main Features of Rutherford’s Model -Limitations -Importance 3) Bohr’s Model -Niels Bohr improved Rutherford’s model. -Solved the stability problem and explained hydrogen spectrum. -Postulates of Bohr’s Model -Achievements –Limitations Atomic Number and Mass Number An atom is made up of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. The atomic number and mass number are two important terms used to describe the composition of an atom. *Atomic Number (Z) The atomic number, symbolized by Z, is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Formula: Atomic Number(Z)=Number of Protons For a neutral atom: Number of Electrons=Number of Protons *Mass Number (A) The mass number, symbolized by A, is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. Since the mass of electrons is negligible, the mass number essentially represents the total mass of the atom’s nucleus. Formula: Mass Number(A)=Number of Protons + Number of Neutrons You can rearrange this formula to find the number of neutrons: Number of Neutrons = Mass Number(A) – Atomic Number(Z) *Isotope Notation Elements are often represented with their atomic and mass numbers. The notation is as follows: Where: Example: Carbon (C) A common isotope of carbon has an atomic number of 6 and a mass number of 12. This can be written as: Electron Distribution in Orbits After the discovery of protons, electrons, and neutrons, the next task was to understand how electrons are arranged within an atom. -Niels Bohr and Bury developed laws for the distribution of electrons in different shells (orbits/energy levels) surrounding the nucleus. *Rules for Electron Distribution 1. Naming of Shells 2. Maximum Number of Electrons in a Shell 3. Octet Rule (Stability Rule) 4. Filling of Electrons in Successive Shells *Importance of Electron Distribution VALENCY Valency is the combining capacity of an atom. It is the number of electrons an atom must gain, lose, or share to achieve a stable electronic configuration, typically having a full outermost shell (an octet of 8 electrons, or a duplet of 2 for elements like Helium). This stable state resembles the electronic configuration of a noble gas. -Atoms are stable when they have 8 electrons in their outermost shell (Octet Rule). -To become stable, atoms: *How to Determine Valency The valency of an element is determined by the number of electrons in its outermost shell, known as valence electrons. *Types of Valency Based on how atoms achieve stability, we can distinguish between two types of valency: *Noble Gases: Zero Valency Noble gases (Group 18 elements) like Helium, Neon, and Argon have a completely filled outermost shell (a stable octet or duplet). Because they are already stable, they do not need to gain, lose, or share electrons. #Valency of noble gases is zero. They are generally unreactive. *Importance of Valency ISOTOPES AND ISOBARS *Isotopes -Definition – Characteristics – Example: Chlorine has two isotopes, Chlorine-35 and Chlorine-37. – Uses of Isotopes *Isobars – Definition – Characteristics
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